Educator Stress - An Occupational Health Perspective

Dedication

Foreword 1

References

Foreword 2

Preface

Contents

Part I: Defining the Problem of Educator Stress in the Context of Current Education Challenges

Chapter 1: School Context and Educational System Factors Impacting Educator Stress

1.1 Context and System Factors Influencing Educator Stress

1.1.1 Occupational Support at Work

1.1.2 Relational Context of Schooling

1.1.2.1 Teacher-Student Relationships

1.1.2.2 Relationships with Colleagues

1.1.3 Systemic Factors in Educational Policy

1.1.3.1 Standardized Testing

1.1.3.2 Educational Innovations

1.2 Future Directions

1.3 Conclusion

References

Chapter 2: Current Knowledge on the Nature, Prevalence, Sources and Potential Impact of Teacher Stress

2.1 Introduction

2.2 What Do We Mean by Teacher Stress?

2.3 How Prevalent Is Teacher Stress and Burnout?

2.4 What Causes Teacher Stress?

2.4.1 Constant Changes in Teaching and Education

2.4.2 The School Context, Culture and Environment

2.4.3 The Teacher’s Role and Level of Experience

2.4.4 Teachers’ Relationships in School

2.4.5 Aspects of the Individual Teacher

2.4.6 Conclusion

2.5 What Are the Consequences of Teacher Stress?

2.5.1 Impact on the Individual Teachers’ Health and Well-Being

2.5.2 Impact on Teachers’ Satisfaction and Commitment to the Profession

2.5.3 Impact on Teachers’ Performance in the Classroom

2.6 A Move Towards More In-Depth and Innovative Research Methodologies to Study Teacher Stress

References

Chapter 3: Consequences of Job Stress for the Mental Health of Teachers

3.1 Epidemiologic Findings

3.1.1 Main Epidemiologic Findings

3.1.2 Exposure to Violence

3.1.3 Evaluation of the Epidemiologic Evidence

3.2 Within-Occupation Research on Job Stressors and Mental Health

3.2.1 A Brief Look at Cross-Sectional Findings

3.2.2 Longitudinal Research Findings

3.3 Workplace Stressors and Burnout

3.3.1 A Brief Look at Cross-Sectional Findings

3.3.2 Longitudinal Research Findings

3.3.3 Longitudinal Studies Involving Coping and Burnout

3.4 Evaluation of the Longitudinal Findings on Mental Health and Burnout

3.5 Recommendations Regarding Research on the Impact of Teachers’ Working Conditions on Mental Health and Burnout

3.6 Burnout and Depression in Teachers. Different Labels, Same Phenomenon?

3.6.1 Burnout-Depression Overlap: Recent Empirical Findings

3.6.2 Burnout as a Job-Related Syndrome

3.6.3 Treatment Implications

3.7 Conclusions

3.7.1 Wider Ramifications

References

Chapter 4: Biological Pathways to Stress-Related Disease Vulnerability in Educators

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Stress and Strain in Educators

4.3 The Physiological Stress Response

4.3.1 Allostatic Load

4.4 Measurement of Primary Mediators

4.4.1 Basal Cortisol Secretion Assessed with the Cortisol Awakening Response (CAR) and Cortisol Day Profiles

4.4.2 Hair Cortisol

4.4.3 Reactivity of Cortisol After Psychosocial Stress Paradigms

4.4.4 Reactivity and Feedback Sensitivity After Pharmacological Challenge Paradigms

4.4.5 Interactions Between the HPA Axis and the Immune System

4.5 Results on Primary Mediators

4.5.1 Stress Hormones

4.5.2 Cytokines

4.6 Measurement of Secondary Outcomes

4.6.1 Blood Coagulation Factors

4.6.2 Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability

4.7 Results on Secondary Outcomes

4.7.1 Coagulation Factors

4.7.2 Heart Rate and Heart Rate Variability

4.7.3 Allostatic Load – Summary Index

4.8 Outlook and Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 5: Teacher Stress and Teacher Self-Efficacy: Relations and Consequences

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Teacher Self-Efficacy

5.2.1 Defining and Measuring Teacher Self-Efficacy

5.2.2 Sources of Self-Efficacy

5.2.3 Correlates of Teacher Self-Efficacy

5.2.4 Age and Gender Differences in Teacher Self-Efficacy

5.2.5 Relations Between Teacher Stress and Teacher Self-Efficacy

5.2.6 Conclusions

5.3 The Present Study

5.3.1 Participants

5.3.2 The Interviews

5.3.3 Data Analysis

5.4 Results

5.4.1 Characteristics of the Norwegian School Impacting Teachers: Shared Experiences

5.4.2 Tim and Heidi

5.4.3 5.4.3. Hanna and Irene

5.5 Discussion

References

Chapter 6: Consequences of Educator Stress on Turnover: The Case of Charter Schools

6.1 Educator Stress and Attrition

6.2 Charter Schools

6.3 Teacher’s Personal Characteristics and Attrition

6.4 School Context and Teacher Attrition

6.5 Empirical Study

6.5.1 Research Purpose and Questions

6.5.2 Methods

6.5.2.1 Inclusion Criteria

6.5.2.2 Sample Description

6.5.2.3 Predictor Variables

6.5.2.4 Statistical Analyses

6.5.3 Results

6.5.3.1 Descriptive Summary of Attrition

6.5.3.2 Survival Analysis Models

6.6 Discussion

6.7 Conclusion, Future Research, and Implications

6.7.1 Future Research

6.7.2 Implications

References

Chapter 7: The Role of Culture and Other Contextual Factors in Educator Stress

7.1 What Is Teacher Stress and How Pervasive Is It Across Countries?

7.2 Cross-cultural and International Research Examining Teacher Stress and Occupational Health Outcomes

7.2.1 Teacher Burnout

7.2.2 Teacher Stress and Job Satisfaction

7.2.3 Teacher Stress and Workforce Stability

7.2.4 Summary of Cross-cultural and International Research Examining Teacher Stress and Occupational Health Outcomes

7.3 Cultural, Governmental, and School Factors in Teacher Stress

7.3.1 Cultural Attitudes Involving Respect for Teachers

7.3.2 Educational Accountability and Reform

7.3.3 Teacher Autonomy

7.3.4 School Leadership

7.3.5 Summary of Governmental and School Contextual Factors Associated with Teacher Stress

7.4 Conclusion

References

Part II: Understanding Educator Stress from an Occupational Health Framework

Chapter 8: Development and Testing of a Theoretical-­Empirical Model of Educator Stress, Coping and Burnout

8.1 Introduction

8.1.1 Conceptions and Definitions

8.2 Highlights from Three Articles

8.2.1 A Meta-analysis for Exploring the Diverse Causes and Effects of Stress in Teachers

8.2.1.1 Literature Review of Stress, Coping and Burnout

8.2.1.2 The Model

8.2.2 Francophone Elementary and Secondary Student Teacher Stress, Coping, and Burnout

8.2.3 Francophone University Professors’ Stress, Coping, Locus of Control, and Burnout

8.3 Discussion and Implications

References

Chapter 9: The Job Demand-Control (-Support) Model in the Teaching Context

9.1 Job Demand-Control (-Support) Model

9.2 The Job Demand-Control-Support Model in Relation to Employee Health and Well-Being

9.2.1 Occupation-Specific Versus Generic Measurement

9.2.2 The Matching Hypothesis

9.3 Review of Teachers’ Stress Studies Based on the JDC(S) Model

9.3.1 The (Iso)-Strain Hypothesis and the Buffer Hypothesis

9.3.1.1 Indicators of Health and Well-Being

9.3.1.2 Physiological Indicators of Stress and the Stress Process

9.3.2 The Learning Hypothesis

9.4 Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Applying Occupational Health Theories to Educational Stress and Health: Evidence from the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model

10.1 Theoretical Background

10.2 Applying the Effort-Reward Imbalance Model to Teachers

10.3 Teachers’ Stressful Work and Their Health: Empirical Evidence

10.3.1 Results of Epidemiologic Studies

10.3.2 Results from Experimental and Naturalistic Studies

10.4 Practical Implications of Current Knowledge

References

Websites

Chapter 11: Applying Occupational Health Theories to Educator Stress: Contribution of the Job Demands-Resources Model

11.1 The Job Demands-Resources Model

11.1.1 The Job Demands-Resources Model of Burnout

11.1.2 The Revised Job Demands-Resources Model

11.2 Job Demands, Job Resources, and Teacher Stress and Well-Being

11.2.1 Approach

11.2.2 Results

11.3 Discussion

References

Chapter 12: Towards a Dynamic Integrative Theory of Educator Stress

12.1 Introduction

12.2 A Case for Dynamic Integrative Approaches to Educator Stress

12.2.1 A Dynamic Perspective

12.2.2 An Integrative Approach

12.2.3 Conclusion

12.3 The DITS Model Components

12.3.1 The Job Demand-Control-Support Model

12.3.2 The Effort-Reward Imbalance Model

12.3.3 Similarities and Differences Between the JDCS and ERI Models

12.3.4 The Teacher Stress Model (Kyriacou & Sutcliffe, 1978)

12.4 DITS Model Testing

12.4.1 Methodology

12.4.2 Results

12.4.2.1 Time and Covariate Effects

12.4.2.2 Additive Hypothesis Results

12.4.2.3 Buffer Hypothesis Results

12.4.3 Discussion

12.5 Conclusion

References

Part III: Managing and Reducing Stress in Education Systems

Chapter 13: Defining Healthy Schools: An Occupational Health Psychology Perspective on Healthy School Climates

13.1 Introduction

13.2 An Overview of Occupational Health Psychology

13.3 Work Organization and Organizational Health Climate

13.3.1 Organizational Health Climate

13.3.2 Safety Climate

13.3.3 Extensions to Safety Climate Literature

13.3.4 Conclusions About Climate Models

13.4 Total Worker Health™

13.5 Creating the Psychologically Healthy Workplace

13.6 General Conclusions

References

Chapter 14: Individual-Level Interventions: Mindfulness-­Based Approaches to Reducing Stress and Improving Performance Among Teachers

14.1 Stress and Burnout

14.2 Mindfulness-Based Interventions

14.3 Mindfulness-Based Interventions for Teachers

14.3.1 Preliminary Research

14.3.2 Standardized MBIs for Teachers

14.3.2.1 Mindfulness-based Stress Reduction (MBSR)

14.3.2.2 Cultivating Emotional Balance in Challenging Times

14.3.2.3 Stress Management and Relaxation Techniques (SMART) in Education

14.3.2.4 Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE) for Teachers

14.3.3 Summary

14.4 Limitations and Future Directions

References

Chapter 15: Individual-Organizational Interface (IOI) Interventions to Address Educator Stress

15.1 Definitions of Individual-Organizational Interface (IOI) Interventions

15.2 The Suitability and Popularity of IOI Interventions in Educational Settings

15.3 Examples of IOI Interventions in Educational Settings

15.3.1 Collaborative Problem-Solving

15.3.2 Mentoring Support and Induction Programs

15.3.3 Developing Educators’ Classroom Management

15.3.4 Performance-Related Feedback

15.3.5 Teamwork Interventions

15.4 Quantity, Quality and Usability of IOI Intervention Research

15.5 Future Directions

References

Chapter 16: Organizational Interventions to Reduce Sources of K-12 Teachers’ Occupational Stress

16.1 Introduction

16.1.1 Models of Organizational Interventions

16.1.2 Models of Organizational Interventions in Primary and Secondary Education

16.2 Research on Organizational Interventions in Primary and Secondary Education

16.2.1 Support/Skills Building Interventions

16.2.2 Organization of Work Interventions: Job Redesign

16.2.3 Summary of Research on Organizational Interventions

16.3 Current Approaches Towards Organizational Interventions in Primary and Secondary Education

16.3.1 Collective Bargaining

16.3.2 Legislative/Policy Approaches

16.3.3 Promising Models for Research

16.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Chapter 17: New Directions in Intervention: Cyber-­Bullying, Schools and Teachers

17.1 Defining Cyber-Bullying

17.1.1 Different Forms of Cyber-Bullying

17.2 Risks Associated with Cyber-Bullying

17.2.1 Prevalence Rates

17.2.2 Age and Gender Differences in Prevalence

17.2.3 Effects of Cyber-Bullying

17.2.4 Teachers Being Victimized

17.2.5 Risk & Risk Management

17.3 Legal and Policy Context of Cyber-Bullying

17.3.1 The U.K. Perspective

17.3.2 The U.S. Perspective

17.3.3 Similarities: The U.K. and U.S.

17.4 Preventing and Managing Cyber-Bullying

17.4.1 Banning Phones at School

17.4.2 Anti-bullying Programs

17.4.3 Educational Resources

17.4.4 Intervention Strategies: An Overview

17.5 Conclusions

References

Part IV: Implications for Research, Practice, and Policy in Education

Chapter 18: Issues in Research Methodology on Educator Stress

18.1 The Challenge of Clustering Observations

18.2 The Challenge of Time

18.3 Ecological Momentary Assessment

18.3.1 The Logic of Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)

18.3.2 EMA Methodological Considerations

18.3.3 EMA Statistical Considerations

18.4 Multilevel Modeling of EMA Data

18.4.1 Empirical Example

18.4.2 EMA Summary

18.5 Survival Analysis

18.5.1 Teacher Stress Dataset and Analysis Objectives

18.5.2 Mathematical Background

18.5.3 Kaplan Meier Estimator of the Survival Function

18.5.3.1 Comparisons of Survival Functions across Independent Groups

18.5.3.2 Cox-proportional Hazards Model

18.5.3.3 Extended Cox Model: Time-Dependent Covariates-Fatigue

18.6 Chapter Summary

References

Chapter 19: Translating Educator Stress Research into Practice and Policy

19.1 The Issue

19.1.1 Recognizing Educator Stress

19.1.2 Teacher Shortage and Attrition

19.1.3 Teacher Preparation, Professional Development, and Content Knowledge

19.2 Moving Toward Possible Solutions

19.2.1 When to Intervene

19.2.2 Legislation and Policy

References

Chapter 20: Implications of an Occupational Health Perspective for Educator Stress Research, Practice, and Policy

20.1 Introduction

20.2 An Occupational Health Perspective

20.3 Implications of an OH Perspective for Educator Stress Research

20.4 Implications of an OH Perspective for Educator Stress Intervention/Practice

20.4.1 Interventions Focused on the Job/Task

20.4.2 Interventions Focused on the Employer/Organization

20.4.2.1 Leadership Training and Development

20.4.3 Total Worker Health® (TWH)

20.5 Future OH Intervention Development in Education Contexts

20.6 Conclusion

References

Index